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Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB) has been conducting National Household Survey (NHS) on corruption since 1997. The sectors covered in this research are related to the delivery of public services. These surveys have now become a biennial affair as the previous survey was conducted in 2015 (NHS-2015) but published in 2016. And the latest NHS- 2017 was released on August 30, 2018. The surveys are aimed at generating awareness about the nature, dimensions and intensity of corruption in Bangladesh and help the policymakers take preventive and corrective measures against it.
The definition of corruption as used in the TIB survey is, "Abuse of public power for private gains while delivering services". In addition to transaction of money illegally (accepting bribe or forcing people to pay bribe, as well as embezzlement of money), negligence of duty, nepotism, embezzlement of assets, fraud, influence-peddling and different types of harassments have been included by TIB in the definition of corruption.
The survey results show that the proportion of corruption victims has almost remained stagnant since 2015 at around 70 per cent. But the most significant finding has been that more people are now convinced that it is impossible to receive services without payment of bribes. Whereas 70.9 per cent surveyed people supported this view in 2015, the percentage has now climbed up to 89 per cent. It only shows that corruption has now become almost institutionalised and is an accepted norm in society, aided and abetted by its bandwagon and demonstration effects.
Let us look at the definitions of bandwagon and demonstration effects for having a better understanding of these two mutually reinforcing phenomena. According to Investopedia, "Bandwagon effect is a psychological phenomenon in which people do something primarily because other people are doing it, regardless of their own beliefs". On the other hand, demonstration effect is the effect on an individual's behaviour caused by the observations of others' actions and their consequences. In Bangladesh, these dual effects among the citizens who seek public services, and the officials who resort to corruption, result in reinforcement and strengthening of this all-pervasive malady.
Let us now have a look at the general findings of the National Household Survey-2017 of TIB. Whereas 66.5 per cent of households were found to be victims of corruption overall, 49.8 per cent or almost four-fifths of the victim households had to pay bribes. Among the 16 sectors surveyed, the law enforcement agencies topped the list in overall corruption (72.5 per cent) and became second in bribery (60.7 per cent). Next in the rankings were Passport (67.3 per cent overall and 59.3 per cent bribery), BRTA (65.4 per cent overall and 63.1 per cent bribery), judicial services (60.5 per cent overall and 32.8 per cent bribery), land-related services (44.9 per cent overall and 37.9 per cent bribery), public education (42.9 per cent overall and 34.1 per cent bribery), public health (42.5 per cent overall and 19.8 per cent bribery), agriculture (41.6 per cent overall and 30.5 per cent bribery), power (38.9 per cent overall and 18.6 per cent bribery), gas (38.3 per cent overall and 11.9 per cent bribery), local government institutions (26.7 per cent overall and 18.3 per cent bribery), insurance (12.3 per cent overall and 4.9 per cent bribery), tax and duties (11.1 per cent overall and 9.4 per cent bribery), banking (5.7 per cent overall and 1.1 per cent bribery), NGOs (5.4 per cent overall and 1.5 per cent bribery) and others (22 per cent overall and 5.7 per cent bribery).
Compared to the findings of NHS-2015, the most notable reductions in NHS-2017 have been in education (down from 60.8 per cent to 42.9 per cent), local government institutions (from 36.1 per cent to 26.7 per cent), and taxes and duties (from 18.1 per cent to 11.1 per cent). On the other hand, the steepest increases in the incidences of corruption have been observed in judicial services (from 48.2 per cent to 60.5 per cent), agriculture (from 25.8 per cent to 41.6 per cent) and gas (from 11.9 per cent to 38.3 per cent). In terms of bribery, the maximum reductions have been in education (from 58.1 per cent to 49.8 per cent), passport (from 76.1 per cent to 59.3 per cent), land-related services (from 49.8 per cent to 37.9 per cent) and power (from 28.4 per cent to 18.6 per cent). On the other hand, the steepest increases in bribery have been observed in agriculture (from 18.2 per cent to 30.5 per cent), BRTA (from 52.3 per cent 63.1 per cent), and judicial services (from 28.9 per cent to 32.8 per cent).
Among the categories of corruption, bribery accounted for 49.8 per cent of the incidents, negligence of duty was identified in 39.9 per cent of the cases, while different types of harassments accounted for 6.9 per cent of the cases. The households who became victims of bribery identified the following reasons for giving bribes: services cannot be obtained without bribes (89 per cent), for avoiding harassments or complexities (47.1 per cent), paying additional money due to ignorance about prescribed fees (37 per cent), and for getting services within stipulated time (23.3 per cent).
Most of the indicators of corruption demonstrate a worsening trend between NHS-2015 and NHS-2017. For example, the total amount of bribes has increased from Tk 88.22 billion (8,822 crore) to Tk 106.89 billion (10,689 crore); the average amount of bribe per household has risen from TK 4,538 to TK 5,930. And most significantly, compared to 70.9 per cent in 2015, 89 per cent claimed in 2017 that it was not possible to get services without paying bribes. All these translate into a worsening impact of bandwagon effect and demonstration effect on the corruption scenario in the country.
The recommendations put forward by TIB based on the opinions of those surveyed during NHS-2017 deserve close scrutiny by the authorities concerned. They include: taking legal measures against those involved in corruption, irrespective of their positions and identities; formulating and implementing a code of ethics in all public institutions in line with the national integrity strategy for ensuring transparency and accountability; instituting reward and punishment mechanisms in different organisations based on performance evaluation of officials; increasing citizens' participatory programmes like public hearings for enhancing transparency and accountability of service-providing organisations; gearing up social movement against corruption and a more active role of the mass media in carrying forward this movement; increasing awareness and training of concerned officials and stakeholders for effective implementation of right to information act 2009 and protection of whistle-blowers act 2011. Besides, information technology (IT) should be utilised for reducing direct contacts between service providers and recipients, and all relevant information should be provided online in order to enhance the service-recipients' access to information. Grievance handling mechanisms should also be put in place in all service-providing organisations and the citizens' charters should be effectively and rigorously implemented by them. Above all, there should be political commitment at all levels, starting from the highest, for curbing corruption and promoting integrity-cum-honesty among public officials in the country.
Dr. Helal Uddin Ahmed, PhD, is a former Editor of Bangladesh Quarterly.