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The last of two-part articles on feminism
In ‘ The Feminism Book’, Lucy Morgan said that for many young feminists born in the late 1960’s, and ‘70s, the Riot Grrl movement of the early 1990s marked the start of the third wave’s (2019). Naomi Woolf was a little more elaborate on this issue and wrote the Women’s Action Coalition(.WAC), the Women’s Health Action Mobilisation (WHAM), YELL, the Riot Grrl, and the Third Wave Organisation, all were born’ (Fire with Fire,1993). She pointed out that apart from these developments in America, in Britain several significant feminist victories changed the climate of the times. These included changes after allegations into police sexual discrimination in the police force, Emily’s list in UK helping women stand for parliament with fund raised by the organisation, election of a woman as deputy leader by Labour Party, declaration by Labour that in 1992 women candidates would be nominated in 50 per cent of all targeted seats, and in the depth of recession four feminist magazines were launched. In 1992 American feminist and writer Rebecca Walker wrote ‘Becoming the Third Wave’, an article for Ms. Magazine in which she declared having joined a new, third wave of feminism that recognised and challenged the racism, classism, and sexism still prevalent in society’. The article highlighted women’s powerlessness to stop sexual harassment- both verbal and physical around them and dismissed the widespread belief that, that in a post-feminist era, most young women were enjoying equality with men and feminism was no longer needed. ‘The fight is far from over’, Walker declared.
From the above, it is apparent that at no stage of history there has been a dearth of feminist concerns. What is more, along with new problems and challenges, some of the old ones re-appear with renewed urgency. The emergence of social media has brought an explosion of activism, marking the fourth wave of feminism. But before we turn to that phase work of one author whose books have profoundly influenced feminist thought should be looked at for comparison with earlier feminist books.
In 1986, British philosopher Judith Butler wrote a paper captioned ‘Sex and Gender in Simone de Beauvoir’s Second Sex’ commenting on the interpretation given by her of the term ‘gender’. Butler formed her own theory of gender and sex and analysed the distinction between the two terms. She later elaborated her thoughts on the subject and published a book titled ‘Gender Trouble’ (1990). Drawing on the theories of post-structuralist French philosopher Michel Foucault and post-structuralist linguist Albanian-born French scholar Julia Kristeva, she said social reality is constructed through the language that is used to describe it and repeated acts or gestures. Following this line of thought she observed that spoken language, gestures, appearance and behaviour are key to the creation of gender identity. Based on this, she concluded, gender is created through the constant repetition of acts. These acts, when observed together, give the appearance of a coherent gender identity. A person is not born with a gender identity that makes them behave in a particular way, they are perceived to have a gender identity because of how they speak, walk and behave, she said. Butler did not think that the performance of a gender is a free choice. Socially constructed norms determine the performance and place man and woman as opposites. Butler did not develop a new theory of gender, but merely explained how the ‘ social construct’ works in practice. But where she departs from de Beauvoir is when she says that sex is also socially determined. She gives the example of a transgender undergoing operation to become male or female according to perception of people (society). Elaboration of the term ‘gender’ by Butler is useful and help clarify how social construct determining it works in practice but to equate sex also as the product of the same process is bit of a stretch.
A new issue was discovered by feminists towards the end of the third wave and some of those in the fourth wave shared the same concern: Women’s obsession with beauty. Naomi Woolf wrote in 1990 in her eponymous book: The more legal and material hindrances women have broken through, the more strictly and heavily and cruelly images of female beauty have come to weigh upon us (The Beauty Myth, 1990). She continued: ‘It is no accident that so many potentially powerful women feel this way. We are in the midst of a violent backlash against feminism that uses images of female beauty as a political weapon against women’s advancement: the beauty myth. It is the modern version of a social reflex that has been in force since the Industrial Revolution. As women released themselves from the feminine mystique of domesticity, the beauty myth took over its lost ground, expanding as it wanted to carry on its work of social control’, she wrote. What is disappointing to feminist like Woolf is that in following the beauty myth women are in thrall to the idea of men because beauty is conceived by patriarchy.
From the early 1980s, mixed-gender, bi-sexual, social and support groups sprang up in the United States (US), Canada and the UK where women were prominent members. In the early 1990s, writers of books on bisexuality argued that bi women had always been a key part of the lesbian and feminist movement.
A concern shared by feminists in the third and fourth waves was with regard to the fact that anti-feminism was gaining ground insidiously. In 1991 Susan Faludi wrote her book ‘Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women,’ where she pointed out that the ‘New Right’ with its pro-family agenda, was leading the backlash, which she attributed to fears of feminism’s success. As an example she cited the case of opposition in Congress to passing the 1972 Equal Rights Amendment. Faludi also criticised the widening gender pay gap and blocking of bills for child care.
The Fourth Wave of Feminism rode on the back of internet in the nineties gaining more visibility, traction and immediacy. By the beginning of 2010s the feminist blogosphere online paved the way for a new generation of feminist discourse and activist Feminists of this phase built on the intersectional experience and sexual orientation of the third wave. The movement comprised largely millennial ( born after 1980s) and Generation Z, born between mid-1990s and mid-2000s. Learning about gender equality from the experiences of second and third wave feminists, feminists of fourth wave were shocked to find that inequality still persisted and that they have to fight for equality and justice. In 2004, American feminists Jessica Vallenti and her sister created the feminist web site ‘Feministing’ to connect a diverse range of feminist voices through its blog that covered current events and in depth analysis and discussion forums. That feminism was still important and needed by young women was brought home to many by ‘Feministing’ and it inspired other web sites with similar contents. The anti-street harassment platform ‘Hollaback’ (2005) allowed women to publicly expose the incidents by uploading their stories with photos. Multiple online movements sprang up, from Arab Spring to Occupy Wall Street in America (2011). The rise of hashtag activism has been the most potent tactics of fourth wave activism. The #MeToo became the most prominent hashtag activism originating in US, it has spread in many countries. #MeToo brought public attention to the extent of sexual assault taking place in all types of work places and demanded that offenders be held to account. Since the campaign began many bigwigs have been hauled to courts in law suits and faced justice. However, some women have held the view that feminism has become too strident, almost losing respectability and credibility. Feminists of fourth wave have denounced such reactionary views and accused them of ignoring prevalent injustices to women. They have reminded the reactionaries the radicalism of second wave feminism and unite to dismantle the patriarchy that continues to oppress women on many fronts.
In 2013, Sheryl Sandburg, Chief Operating Officer of Facebook, wrote in her book ‘Lean In’ that women who have made it to top echelon in corporate bodies should take up the cases of those women who are below them. But critics have been sceptical whether the trickle-down feminism Sandburg advocates will work. Sandburg, of course, laments the absence of paid maternity leave in US and the persistence of gender discrimination women face when they try to balance work and home life. But she is ready to compromise and advises women to adapt to the system. She also advises women for survival at work before and after pregnancy’ (Lean In, 2013).
Conclusion: The review of women’s grievances and their plight in life show that as a result of feminist movement of a century and a quarter many of these have disappeared or alleviated. But two most glaring and serious of the suffering, one physical, the other economic, continue to oppress women everywhere, almost relentlessly. This write-up began with reference to vulnerabilities of the body from which women have suffered from time immemorial. Sexual harassment and assault are taking place in both developed and developing countries unabated, and in some places with impunity. Allied to this threat and harm to the body of women, apart from collateral psychological trauma, is the issue of women’s right over body, particularly in respect of pregnancy. Even in America where abortion was recognised as a constitutional right there has been a reversal as a result of Supreme Court’s recent decision to upturn Roe v. Wade.
The threat to body, including harassment, assault and rape, is old as human history. Though its incidence can be reduced there is no way this scourge can be totally abolished. This is because women are biologically weak and therefore remain vulnerable to attacks by predatory men. Simone de Beauvoir put it succinctly in her book: ‘Women are weaker than man —— she cannot stand up to him in a fight’ (The Second Sex, 1949). Not only women suffer from this biological handicap, in the perception of men, women have been considered as weak. Aristotle wrote long ago: “The female is a female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities; we should regard the female nature as afflicted with a natural defectiveness”. Simone de Beauvoir adds further on this saying: “She is simply what man decrees, thus she is called ‘the sex’, by which is meant that she appears essentially to the male as a sexual being. For him she is sex —absolute sex, no less.” So, women are defined as biologically weak and secondly, they are object of desire or enjoyment by men because they represent sex. The biology part is divinely/genetically ordained and no one, in the present state of scientific advancement, can do anything about it, Hollywood’s ‘Wonder Woman’, notwithstanding. Inherent physical weakness together with the status of women as men’s object of desire make women’s vulnerability to sexual assault inevitable. Social mores, sense of morality, decency and fear of legal retribution may thwart the predatory inclination of men, but are not strong enough to prevent the sexually deviant from pouncing on the victim. Shocking as it may sound, it has to be admitted that attempts at rape cannot be stopped altogether. Education, moral persuasion and publicity about deterrence of possible punishment under law can have some effect on potential offenders and as such should be made the most of. But above all, women should be wary of this threat to her body all the time and take every possible precaution ( having a male companion while travelling, not moving in unsafe places or in the dark, having spray or stun pistol to immobilise attackers, karate training etc.). Feminist organisations, civic society and human rights body all should have a very active and regular programme for prevention of sexual assault, including rape and simplification and rationalisation of investigation and court trial of rape cases. The authorities in workplaces, transport authorities, city father, police and all other private and public agencies having jurisdiction over the working, movements and living of women have the responsibility to take measures for protection of women against bodily harm. Finally, verbal or written harassments should be taken seriously at par with commission of physical harm and dealt with promptly.
The second most important problem facing women that has proved intractable is gap in gender pay. Equally pernicious are the barriers to promotion by female workers and staff. Gone are the days when certain jobs were offered to women as being suitable for them, earmarking others for men only. Now, women are working everywhere, from defence to space and they have proved their equal competence with men in many arduous works. They deserve to be compensated for their work fairly and without discrimination. Though equal pay for equal work has been recognised under law in many countries in practice this has not been implemented. Feminist organisations have to ensure that the fruits of their hard fought struggle for equal pay are not denied to their constituencies under any pretext. For this they may have to work with the help of concerned government agencies while keeping up the pressure. Activism in this regard has to be followed up with monitoring of implementation.
Promotion to higher positions in offices and work places has been denied in many instances primarily because of absence before, during and after child birth. On top of this handicap, women who work have also to look after children and do household chores. These are serious impediments to career building by women in any profession. In bearing children and rearing them up, women are discharging a social responsibility. As such society must reward them rather than punish for absence from work because of child birth and household work. Not everyone can juggle work and motherhood or domestic work like Sheryl Shandberg and, therefore, a career path with promotions based on competence should be guaranteed for women in all spheres of work. This issue should engage the fourth wave feminist movement as a priority.
There are other emergent issues that are engaging the minds of young feminists now. Besides, they have to follow up with the progress or lack of progress of issues that were in the agenda of previous waves. All told, there will be enough to keep feminists busy throughout the fourth stage, for as long as it lasts. Then there will be new issues to be addressed by the next generation, leading to a new wave. Feminist movement is likely to last as long as mankind live on this planet, simply because biologically woman is the ‘weaker sex.’ To compete with men or to ensure protection from them, women have to use collective strength.