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Tensions between nuclear-armed neighbours India and Pakistan have sharply escalated following Indian missile and bomb strikes on targets in Pakistan and Pakistan-administered Kashmir.
Pakistan's leadership has condemned the strikes as an act of war.
The two countries have released few specific details, and conflicting accounts of the events have only added to the confusion.
According to the Soufan Center, a security-focused think tank, the conflict is being complicated by a surge in misinformation: "The internet has been flooded with disinformation, false claims, and manipulated photos and videos," it said.
"This information warfare is compounded by both sides' commitment to save face," the centre added.
While independent verification of the various claims is currently not possible due to the ongoing conflict, a clearer picture emerges through official statements and known military capabilities.
Disinformation and the Use of Foreign Military Hardware
Pakistan said Saturday it had used hypersonic missiles launched from a JF-17 Thunder fighter jet-a platform jointly developed with China-to destroy an Indian S-400 air defence system in the border state of Punjab. India denied any damage and promised to present evidence later.
Praveen Donthi, a senior analyst with the International Crisis Group, commented that while the countries have not officially declared war, they are "effectively at war," with misinformation contributing to fear, especially among residents in border regions.
"It's become a remorseless race for military one-upmanship," he noted.
On the same day, Pakistan said it had used its Fatah-II missiles to strike an Indian missile depot and two airbases. Indian officials acknowledged targeting Pakistani military installations in return.
Though neither side has revealed full details on the extent of the damage, Pakistan claimed it intercepted most of India's missiles and launched counterattacks.
Pakistan Claims It Downed Five Indian Fighter Jets
In response to an Indian strike launched early Wednesday-following a deadly attack on tourists in Indian-administered Kashmir-Pakistan's military spokesperson Lt. Gen. Ahmed Sharif claimed that its air force had downed five Indian warplanes: three French Rafales, one Russian-made SU30MKI, and a MiG-29.
He asserted that no Pakistani aircraft were lost and all returned safely.
Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif echoed the claim, telling Parliament that Pakistan had the chance to shoot down 10 Indian jets but opted to down only the five that attacked its territory. He said India deployed about 80 aircraft in total for the operation.
India has not confirmed any aircraft losses, but debris from three planes has been found in separate areas.
Lack of Visual Evidence Clouds the Situation
India operates all three of the fighter jet models Pakistan claims to have shot down, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies' Military Balance report. These jets are capable of both air-to-air combat and ground attacks.
Both countries maintain their aircraft did not cross into the other's airspace. If Pakistan's version is accurate, its pilots likely engaged Indian jets from long range, rather than in a traditional dogfight. Pakistan may also have used surface-to-air missiles to down the aircraft-an approach seen as effective in modern warfare, as demonstrated in Ukraine.
Pakistan is known to have numerous Chinese-made surface-to-air missile systems.
Spotlight on Chinese Military Exports
Pakistan's air force includes a mix of U.S.-made F-16s, French Mirages, and newer Chinese models such as the J-10C and the JF-17. Alongside U.S.-supplied missiles, Pakistan fields Chinese weapons like the PL-12 and PL-15, both of which are capable of engaging targets beyond visual range.
Foreign Minister Ishaq Dar told lawmakers the J-10C was responsible for downing the Indian aircraft, suggesting the use of Chinese weaponry.
Lisa Curtis, head of the Indo-Pacific security program at the Center for a New American Security, noted: "It's interesting that Pakistan is saying it is using Chinese jets that it has imported from China to shoot down Indian aircraft."
She pointed out that in 2019, during a previous military standoff, "it was a Pakistani F-16 provided by the United States that was used to shoot down an Indian aircraft." This shift indicates Pakistan is now relying more on Chinese equipment than in the past, she added.
News of the engagement led to a stock surge for AVIC Chengdu Aircraft-the Chinese company that manufactures both the J-10C and JF-17-on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Meanwhile, shares of France's Dassault Aviation, which makes the Rafale, fell sharply on Wednesday before recovering the next day.
Conflicting Narratives from Both Sides
India has yet to specify which military assets were used in its strikes. The Defense Ministry stated the attacks hit nine sites linked to plots against India. At a Wednesday briefing, India released video footage of eight strikes-four in Pakistan-controlled Kashmir and four within Pakistan proper.
Pakistan, however, claimed the attacks killed 31 civilians, including women and children, in areas such as Pakistan-administered Kashmir and the Punjab province. It also said two mosques were among the structures hit.
While both nations have acknowledged the use of missiles, video footage suggests that bombs-possibly dropped by drones-were also involved. Pakistan reported it had also shot down an unspecified number of drones.
Indian authorities described their strikes as precise, and footage appears to confirm that specific targets were hit with limited collateral damage, rather than widespread bombing.